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Summary

From 1993 to 1996, approximately 300 Navajo and Hopi families on Black Mesa, Arizona, resisted government orders to relocate and opposed Peabody Coal’s mining operations. They employed nonviolent occupation, civil disobedience, and lobbying to protect their land and water. The campaign achieved partial success: families remained on their land, and Peabody’s mining permit was revoked in 1996, though mining continued and water conditions did not improve [source: nv-database].

Background

Since 1882, the Big Mountain reservation on Black Mesa, Arizona, was disputed between the U.S. government and the Navajo and Hopi tribes. Rich sulfur coal deposits attracted mining companies, and by the 1970s Peabody Coal began strip mining. A 1974 relocation act pressured tribes to leave, offering $5000 to those who moved, but by the 1990s about 300 families still refused to relocate [source: nv-database].

What happened

On 5 August 1993, a federal judge ordered remaining Navajo to relocate or sign a 75-year squatter’s lease; they ignored the order and continued living on the land [source: nv-database]. In November 1993, the Bureau of Indian Affairs began daily livestock raids to pressure the Navajo, charging large sums to release the animals [source: nv-database]. Peabody Coal had mined since 1968, using a slurry pipeline that dried up fifty springs and poisoned water, killing livestock and threatening lives [source: nv-database]. Elders Pauline Whitesinger and Roberta Blackgoat led resistance by tearing down fences, confronting BIA officials, and turning away government workers [source: nv-database]. In 1993, Peabody bulldozed at least four Navajo burial grounds; Navajo blocked bulldozers with their bodies, tore down fences, wrote letters, lobbied, and used the internet and meetings to raise awareness [source: nv-database]. They also filed lawsuits over unfair land use, water rights, and violation of federal mining laws [source: nv-database]. On 11 March 1996, a federal judge ruled Peabody’s activities infringed on human and environmental rights, revoked its mining permit for violating the National Environmental Policy Act and the Surface Mining Control Act, and found tribal councils, OSMRE, and BIA disregarded basic rights [source: nv-database]. Peabody appealed and continued fighting for mining access [source: nv-database]. By the 1 April 1996 deadline, most families had not complied; up to fifty families accepted the government proposal, but the courts took no action against the remaining families [source: nv-database]. On 26 September 1996, Congress passed the Navajo-Hopi Settlement Act requiring all Navajo to relocate by 2000 [source: nv-database]. In 1996, a group of Hopi and Navajo traveled to London to protest at Hanson’s Ltd. [source: nv-database] stockholders meeting; Lord Hanson had them thrown out, but Roberta Blackgoat offered a prayer [source: nv-database]. Families still refuse to acknowledge the land acts [source: nv-database]. On 22 December 2008, the Department of Interior Office of Surface Mining granted Peabody a permit to continue operations, but after an appeal from Navajo and Hopi peoples, the permit was withdrawn on 8 January 2010 [source: nv-database].

Key people & organizations

  • Roberta Blackgoat
  • Pauline Whitesinger
  • Peabody Coal
  • Bureau of Indian Affairs
  • Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation Effects
  • Department of the Interior
  • Navajo-Hopi tribes

Tactics used

The campaign combined nonviolent occupation and civil disobedience to physically block mining and government actions, while also using lobbying, lawsuits, and public awareness to apply legal and political pressure. This mix of direct action and institutional tactics aimed to defend land rights and challenge the mining permit simultaneously [source: nv-database].

Outcome

Verdict: partial.

The campaign achieved partial success: Navajo families remained on their land, and Peabody’s mining permit was revoked in 1996 due to environmental violations. However, Peabody appealed and continued mining, water conditions did not improve, and Congress later passed a relocation act. The 2010 permit withdrawal was a later victory, but the core goal of stopping mining and protecting water was not fully realized during the campaign period [source: nv-database].

Lessons

  • Combining physical occupation with legal challenges can create multiple pressure points against corporate and government opponents.
  • Sustained nonviolent resistance over years can delay or reverse unfavorable policies even when full victory is not immediate.
  • Building alliances across tribal lines and using media and internet outreach can amplify a local struggle to national and international audiences.

Sources

Disclaimer: Included as a teaching example of campaign craft, not as endorsement.

Sources & verification

  • nv-database — grounding: primary — license: link-only
  • Rewritten: 2026-06-25 via worker_casestudies_v2.py

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